Nyelvtanulás | Angol » Bede Júlia - Comparison of the waste management policies applied within the European Union and the accessing cee countries

BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. Budapesti Gazdasági Főiskola KÜLKERESKEDELMI FŐISKOLAI KAR KÜLGAZDASÁGI SZAK Nappali tagozat Európai Üzleti Tanulmányok szakirány COMPARISON OF THE WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES APPLIED WITHIN THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE ACCESSING CEE COUNTRIES, THROUGH THE EXAMPLE OF SWEDEN AND HUNGARY Prepared by: Júlia Bede Budapest, 2003 3 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti.

Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. Table of Contents 1 Introduction.5 2 Environmental Protection in the European Union .7 2.1 The development of the EU’s Environmental Policy. 7 2.2 Legal basis of the European Union’s environmental policy and the concerning legislation. 8 2.21 2.22 2.3 Legal basis: the principles. 8 The concerning legislation . 10 The Sixth Environmental Action Programme. Environment 2010: Our future, Our choice11 2.31 2.32 3 The European Union’s waste management policy .13 3.1 The most important terms and definitions in the area of waste management . 14 3.2 The development of the EU’s waste management policy and the main legislation . 17 3.3 The waste management policy of the Sixth Environmental Action Programme . 22 3.31 3.32 4 A new strategic approach. 11 The key priority

areas . 12 The sustainable use of natural resources . 22 Waste Prevention and Management. 23 Waste management policy and practice in Sweden .27 4.1 Brief history of Swedish waste management. 27 4.2 Waste legislation in Sweden. 28 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 The Environmental Quality Objectives Bill 1999 . 29 Year 2000. 29 Year 2001. 29 Year 2002 . 30 Year 2003. 30 4.3 Responsibility distribution in Swedish Waste Management. 31 4.4 Collection and transport of waste . 31 4.5 Waste Economy. 33 4.6 Quantities of waste in 2002 . 33 4.61 4.62 4.63 Material recycling . 34 Landfill. 36 Biological treatment. 38 4 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de

csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 4.64 4.65 4.66 5 Waste to energy – incineration. 38 Hazardous waste . 40 Industrial waste . 41 Environmental Protection in Hungary .42 5.1 Short history of Hungary’s environmental policy . 43 5.2 Environmental legislation in Hungary . 43 The 1995/LIII Act on the general rules of environmental protection . 44 5.3 The Second National Environmental Protection Programme. 45 (NEPP – II). 45 5.31 5.32 5.33 6 The Programme’s principles . 45 The framework for implementation of the Programme. 46 Waste management in the Programme. 46 Hungary’s waste management policy.48 6.1 Waste Management legislation. 49 6.11 Act XLIII. of 2000 on Waste Management 49 6.2 The institutional background . 51 6.3 Division of Responsibility in Waste Management . 52 6.4 Waste economy in Hungary. 53 6.5 Waste management in Hungary and the National Waste Management Plan. 54 6.51 6.52 6.53 6.6 Amounts of waste and waste

management in 2000 . 55 Waste treatment in Hungary . 58 Special Material and Waste Flow Programme . 63 Selective waste collection at Kistarcsa: a good example to be followed in the whole country. 64 7 Overall Comparison and Conclusion .67 7.1 Comparison of waste management legislation in the two countries . 68 7.2 Differences in division of responsibility in waste management . 69 7.3 Waste economy compared . 69 7.4 Differences in waste treatment methods. 70 List of Tables and Graphs.71 Bibliography.72 5 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 1 Introduction Nowadays, at the beginning of

the 21st century, environmental protection has become one of the most important issues. Its importance lies in its global nature There is not one single corner of our planet where the protection of the natural environment is not essential. Everyone is, in one form or another, affected by the damages caused to the environment, and everyone is involved in the damages caused. More and more people are becoming aware of the importance of protecting the natural environment. The problem is, that most people are not aware of what they could to diminish the damages caused, and which of their actions has the most harmful effect. Waste management is one of the areas where the contamination of the environment can be controlled to a great extent, as everybody generates waste. It is up to the governments and other decision-making bodies to set up rules and regulations that ensure a reasonable management of waste. I have chosen waste management as the topic of my dissertation, because it is an issue

that I am faced with day after day, and my experiences about the, not very encouraging, waste situation in Hungary have made me want to know more about the possibilities of improvement. Sweden has become my other choice, because it is a country that can serve as a very good example with its outstandingly well controlled environmental protection and well managed waste. The European Union is making serious efforts in the field of environmental protection. The countries already members of the Union have the obligation to meet the regulations of the Community, and the countries accessing in 2004, also have to comply with the rules. This is not an easy task for many Member States, and even harder for the often far less developed accessing countries. The following work aims to compare the waste management practice of the European Union and the accessing countries. In order to make the comparison clearer, I have chosen two examples from each side: Sweden, as a Member State, and Hungary as an

accessing country. Through these two examples, it will be easier to highlight the main differences It is, however, very important to keep in mind that neither of the two countries shows an 5 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. exact picture of the group they are entitled to represent. There are two reasons for this The first is, that although the EU has homogeneous regulations, the Member States are at different levels of implementation of these regulations. Sweden can be considered as one of the most positive examples for waste management within the EU. It has, in many cases, already gone

beyond EU rules, and adopted stricter legislation. The second reason is similar, but concerns the accessing countries. In their case, the adoption of the EU regulations is at an even less developed stage, and they can not be treated as a homogeneous group, as they are at very different levels of the adoption of the acquis communitaire. Despite the two reasons stated above, I am convinced that by analysing the waste management practices of the two countries chosen, a good picture of the most important differences between the two groups can be shown. The first part of the dissertation deals with the European Union’s environmental and waste management policy. These first two chapters show the standards, which the two countries have to meet. The adoption of EU rules are a must for all Member States and accessing countries. The second part of the dissertation discusses the waste management policy of Sweden. It presents the national legislation and national waste management practices. The

degree of compliance with EU regulations is also discussed. The third part presents Hungary’s waste management policy and practice. The analysis is conducted in the same way as in the case of Sweden. This means that the analyses are done according to the same aspects in both cases. Through this method, the final comparison and conclusion are easier to complete. The final part is an overall comparison and conclusion. Here, the most important differences are highlighted and a final conclusion is drawn. 6 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 2 Environmental Protection in the European Union 2.1

The development of the EU’s Environmental Policy The European Union’s environmental policy has independent features from national policies: it is based on ethical, economical and welfare principles. When it was founded in 1957, the European Economic Community had no environmental policy. It was only in the late 1960s and early 1970s that the Community began to develop a policy of its own, due to the emerging environmental awareness all around the world. It was in the year of the UN Stockholm environmental conference, in 1972, that the Community developed its First Environmental Action Programme, which has been followed by five other up to the present day. These action programmes give the main guidelines of the development European environmental policy for various years in advance . The first two Action Programmes were mainly aimed at the rehabilitation of the environment, which shows the recognition by the Community of the importance of environmental consciousness in the decade of

the 1970s. The Third Action Programme (in 1983) was the first to recognise and introduce prevention as the most important principle of environmental protection. The Fourth Programme’s (1987-1992) most important goal was the harmonisation of environmental policy with the Community’s other policies. The Fifth Programme was launched in 1992 with the title: Towards Sustainability. This programme took account of economic issues, the need for development and the unsustainable abuse of natural resources, in order to develop a modern environmental 7 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. policy. It

set longer term objectives and focused on a more global approach Two major principles formed the basis of the programme. The first was the integration of environmental dimensions into all policy areas and the second the replacement of command-and-control approaches with shared responsibility between the various actors of community control (e.g governments, regional institutions and the community institutions.) In order to achieve the goals set by the agreed principles, a series of instruments had to be introduced and used. These included new environmental legislation, economic instruments that encouraged the use of environmentally friendly production methods, together with financial support, information, education and research. The Sixth Environmental Action Programme is in force at present, since the year 2001. I will present the programme in detail later in the chapter. Environmental policy was introduced into the Treaty of Rome by the Single European Act in 1987, and therefore it

can be considered a community policy since that date. In 1996, the Amsterdam Treaty brought along big changes in environmental questions. In it, they introduced the requirement of sustainable development as a basic community policy, and also the horizontal integration of environmental issues into other community policy areas. Nowadays environmental protection is a priority issue in the European Union and serious efforts are being made to achieve the total integration of this policy into all areas of action. 2.2 Legal basis of the European Union’s environmental policy and the concerning legislation 2.21 Legal basis: the principles The principles of the European Union’s environmental policy are listed in the 130r(2) of the Treaty on the European Union (the Treaty of Maastricht). They are:1 1 www.kumhu/eu/magyar/kiadvanyok/kornypdf 8 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad

információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. • The principle of high level of protection. The treaty states that the main goal is the high level of environmental protection. The Community has to take into account the scientific facts, the environmental state of the different regions, the costs and benefits of the actions taken in this field and the overall economic and social conditions. • The precautionary principle. Basically, this principle means, that environmental damage should be avoided by all means. • The principle of preventive action. Preventive action means that environmental damage should be rectified at source, and this can anticipate the spreading of the damage through the environment. • The

polluter pays principle. Whoever causes the environmental damage should bear the costs. This may mean the restoring of the caused damage or the costs of keeping the environmental norms. In practice, however this principle is often difficult to apply in many cases of pollution, as the given tools (e.g environmental taxes) are not effective enough. • The principle of integration. Environmental policy does not have sense if it is contradictory with other policies, and therefore it has to be integrated into all policy areas. • The principle of subsidiarity. This principle states that the EU will only act when it can solve a problem more effectively than the national level could. This means that the problems are solved on regional, national and community levels with the most effective division of tasks possible. • Principle of sustainable development. The EU is committed to the application of the definition of sustainable development in its environmental policy. The definition

was worked out by the Bruntland Committee in 1987: “ development 9 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. that satisfies the needs of present generations in a way that does not keep future generations from being able to satisfy their own needs.” • The partnership principle. This principle aims at developing co-operation between those, taking part in sustainable development in order to solve environmental problems. 2.22 The concerning legislation Article 130s identifies the legislative procedures for environmental policy. It states that qualified majority voting (QMV) has to be used in the

council for most areas with cooperation or co-decision procedure with the European Parliament (EP). At present, the environmental legislation of the EU is made up of approximately 300 directives, regulations, decisions and recommendations, and the number is growing. The activities of the European Union reach out to all areas of environmental legislation. In order to achieve better understanding of the legislation it is divided into some key areas. These are:2 2 • Horizontal legislation concerning all areas of environmental specialities. • Air cleanness protection • Waste management • Water quality protection • Nature protection • Control of industrial pollution • Chemical substances and genetically modified organisms • Protection against noise pollution • Climate protection, environmental policy, international agreements • Nuclear safety and protection against radiation • Catastrophe prevention and citizen protection Source: www.eurohu 10

BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. It is a basic expectation that apart from these specialities, environmental legislation should also cover certain economic areas, such as agriculture and transport as well as the different aspects of sustainable development. 2.3 The Sixth Environmental Action Programme Environment 2010: Our future, Our choice3 The Sixth Environmental Action Programme of the Community was introduced in January 2001. It followed the Fifth Environmental Action Programme and it was developed so as to ameliorate it. Therefore, the programme builds to a great extent on the results

already achieved, and the fields where improvement is needed. The Global Assessment of the 5th Action Programme gave the basis for the new programme. According to the evaluation of the fifth programme, great progress had been made in certain areas such as cutting pollution levels, but there were still many problems remaining that would continue to worsen the state of the environment unless certain actions were not taken. The 6th Action Programme was meant to remedy these still existing problems. The method for achieving this was, on the one hand, to work out a strategic approach to meet the set objectives, and on the other hand, to identify the priority areas of action. 2.31 A new strategic approach The new approach puts great emphasis on new, innovative ways of working with all sections of society. It highlights the importance of improving the implementation of existing environmental legislation, as empirical evidence showed that member states were often lagging behind in questions

of adopting and applying community rules. The integration of environmental concerns into other policy areas is a key element of the new approach. This means that all institutions should concentrate on making 3 Executive Summary of the 6th Environmental Action Programme www.europaeuint/eur-lex/en/com/pdf/2001/en 501PC0031pdf 11 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. environmentally conscious decisions in all areas, and no other alternative can be acceptable. All decisions must be assessed in the light of their impact on the environment Working together with the market is also emphasised. The

idea is, that if consumer and business interests are kept in mind, this will contribute to the introduction of more sustainable production and consumption patterns. It is very important to note, that the new strategy includes the suggestion that reward for good performance in the case of businesses should be introduced, besides punishing those who fail to comply with the new rules. Informing consumers to allow them to choose environmentally friendly products, giving public subsidies in order to promote environmentally benevolent practices and encouraging businesses to innovate and develop clean technologies are also important new points in the strategy. The Community’s role is also described in the new approach. This is basically to provide support for Member States by promoting best practice and through the Structural Funds in questions like land use planning and management decisions. Through this, the fragmentation of land in rural areas, for example, can be prevented. 2.32 The

key priority areas Four priority areas were identified, to which special attention is paid in the action programme. These four areas have been obviously selected because they are the ones most affected by the environmental damages. In each of the four areas the objectives of the programme are made clear and the ways and methods to reach these goals are set forth. The four areas are: tackling climate change, with the goal of reducing the concentration of greenhouse gases; protecting nature and bio-diversity and restoring the functioning of natural systems; protecting environment and health by reducing the levels of contaminants; and finally, the sustainable use of natural resources and the management of wastes. The latter area I will discuss in detail in the following chapter 12 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum

szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. In connection with the Sixth Environmental Action Programme it has to be noted that it is this programme, which has to and will give the enlarged European Union the direction and the tools to create a clean and safe environment. It fulfils its task as a basis for the environmental policy of the Community, as it provides the guiding principles and the methods needed, it involves the citizens as well as businesses and contributes to a great extent to sustainable development. 3 The European Union’s waste management policy For our society, waste means a two fold environmental challenge. The reason for this is, that all waste has to be either recovered or be disposed of. This means environmental impacts on the one hand and economic costs on the other. In

order to make the management of waste as efficient as possible on both sides of the problem, it needs to be decoupled from economic growth. The European Union is making serious efforts to work out an effective and efficient waste management policy that will help reach the overall environmental goals but will not hold up economic development. This task is not an easy one, due to the great difference in the economic state of the Member States. The differences in the level of implementation of Community legislation in the participating countries means a great problem, and the control of waste is also a problematic area, due to the lack of resources and harmonisation of statistical data, although improvement has been made recently in this field. Through the planned introduction of the Waste Statistics Regulation a legal basis will be provided for data 13 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad

információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. collection and processing, and this way it will hopefully contribute to providing a comprehensive picture of waste generation and treatment for the whole Community by 2006. It is important to note here that within the difficult area of environmental protection, waste management is an accentuated and difficult issue. The necessarily high involvement of citizens implies a high degree of understanding and acceptance of the issue by the population. This is not an easy task to solve, as a whole new attitude needs to be developed. 3.1 The most important terms and definitions in the area of waste management In order to give a better understanding of the policy measures taken in the

Community to deal with the enormous amount of waste, it is important to clarify the meaning of the most important terms used within this area.4 • Waste: “Materials that are not prime products (that is, products produced for the market) for which the generator has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and of which he/she wants to dispose. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, and other human activities. Residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded.” Within the European Union the generation of waste reaches approximately 1.3 billion tonnes per year (excluding agricultural waste). This means an average of 35 tonnes per capita per year, but the exact number varies from country to country.5 Besides the large amount of waste, the complexity of the generated waste also faces

decision makers with a great challenge. • Waste stream: “The total flow of solid waste from homes, businesses, institutions and manufacturing plants that is recycled, burned, or disposed of in landfills.” 4 5 All definitions from: http://glossary.eeaeuint/EEAGlossary/ www.europaeuint/eur-lex/en/com/CAC/2003/com2003 0301en01pdf 14 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. The total waste generation within the EU is made up of five major waste streams: manufacturing waste (26%), mining and quarrying waste (29%), construction and demolition waste (22%), municipal solid waste (MSW) (14%) and

agricultural waste. Graph no. 1: Major Waste Streams in the EU 9% 14% 26% Manufacturing waste Quarrying w. 22% 29% Construction and demolition w. Municipal Solid w. Agricultural w. Source: Communication from the Commission www.europaeuint/eur-lex/en/com/CAC/2003/com2003 0301en01pdf • Waste management: “The collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste (including after-care of disposal sites).” Waste management is one of the most important topics within the environmental policy of the European Union. It has been developing since the beginnings of the Community The approaches to dealing with waste have changed throughout the years, from the relatively simple method of waste control to a wider, integrated approach. I will discuss the development of the Union’s waste management policy in detail later on in this chapter. • Waste treatment: “The physical, thermal, chemical or biological processes, which change the characteristics of the waste in order to reduce

its volume or hazardous nature, to facilitate its handling or to enhance recovery.” As in the waste hierarchy defined by the Sixth Environmental Action Programme of the EU, recovery of waste is in the second place, the treatment of waste, which facilitates recovery is a very important issue, that the EU deals with in depth. 15 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. • Recycling: “(1) A resource recovery method involving the collection and treatment of a waste product for use as raw material in the manufacture of the same or a similar product. (2) The EU waste strategy distinguishes

between: reuse meant as a material reuse without any structural changes in materials; recycling meant as a material recycling, only, and with a reference to structural changes in products; and recovery meant as an energy recovery only.” Recycling is practically the best method for treating generated waste. Globally increasing waste volumes force authorities to improve recycling methods by encouraging further amelioration of waste collection methods (i.e separate collection) Data on the trends in treating waste shows (in the case of MSW), that progress has been made towards recycling throughout the 1990s. In numbers this means that in the early 1990s about 15% of waste was treated this way, while by the end of the decade this had increased to approximately 20%.6 This data, of course is an average, as the numbers vary from Member State to Member State. • Landfill: “Deposition of waste on land under controlled conditions.” Although it is not the best way to dispose of waste,

this method is still the most widely used within the Community. At the end of the 1990s, it accounted for 57% of waste treatment at Community level. This had been a great improvement since the early years of the same decade, but it is still extremely high. Looking at the differences in numbers between the Member States can prove this statement. In some states the percentage of waste (MSW) that goes to landfill is over 80%, while in other countries it is less than 20%. This variation is due to both economic and social reasons, but it shows that it is possible to reach such low numbers in landfill.7 • Incineration: “The process of burning solid waste under controlled conditions to reduce its weight and volume, and often to produce energy.” Incineration is commonly regarded as an extremely pollutant activity. However, incineration can be a source of energy, and if safely carried out, the damages caused to the environment can be minimised. 6 Data from:

www.europaeuint/eur-lex/en/com/CAC/2003/com2003 0301en01pdf 7 Data from: www.europaeuint/eur-lex/en/com/CAC/2003/com2003 0301en01pdf 16 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 3.2 The development of the EU’s waste management policy and the main legislation8 The waste management policy of the European Union, as previously mentioned, has undergone serious changes (improvements) from its creation until present day. During the 1970s, the European waste management policy was rather concerned with dealing with the outputs of the economy than with the efficient use of resources. The main policy areas

were the regulation of the final disposal methods of waste and the development of end-of-pipe solutions. It was soon realised that these two approaches only give temporal solutions and are not appropriate on the long-term. The policy approach, since then, has progressively shifted towards a more integrated approach that puts emphasis on prevention, rather than subsequent action. I will now shortly present the approaches followed within the different environmental action programmes developed by the Community, and the main legislation adopted in each of them. In the case of the Sixth Environmental Action Programme I will discuss the waste management policy approach in detail in a separate section, later on in this same chapter. The First Environmental Action Programme (1973-1976) emphasised the need for a remedial approach at a Community level to problems of waste disposal. During this programme, in 1975, the Framework Directive on waste 75/442/EEC was adopted. It was amended by the

Council Directive 91/156/EEC, but the main contents have remained the same. I will discuss the most important contents of the directive in the context of the fourth Action Programme. The second (1977-1981) and the third (1982-1986) Environmental Action Programmes put more emphasis on the Community actions needed to combat waste and a more efficient use of natural resources. The most important legislation adopted within the framework of these two programmes was the Hazardous Waste Directive 78/319/EEC, which was replaced by Directive 91/689/EEC (I will also discuss this directive in detail in the context of the fourth Action Programme.) 8 http://www.forumforthefutureorguk/uploadstore/An%20Overview%20of%20European%20Waste%20and% 17 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár

dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. During the period of the Fourth EAP (1987-1992), the Bruntland report was released, which defined the concept of sustainable development. This new concept brought along changes in all areas of environmental policy, and waste management was not an exception. In 1989 a Community Strategy for Waste Management was introduced, and within it the principle of waste hierarchy was formally defined. Since then, waste prevention has been regarded as top priority. The fourth programme put great emphasis on the need for clean technologies and the use of instruments other than environmental legislation was first envisaged. These included economic incentives such as environmental taxes, and also information. The most important legislation adopted in this period were: the Municipal Waste Incineration directives 89/369/EEC and

89/429/EEC (amended in 2000), the Amended Framework Directive on waste 75/442/EEC and the Directive 91/689/EEC replacing Hazardous Waste Directive 78/319/EEC. I will now discuss the main points of the latter two. Amended Framework Directive on waste 75/442/EEC9 The main objective of the directive is to set up a system for the co-ordinated management of waste within the Community in order to limit waste production. The most important contents of the directive are the following: ¾ All Member States should prohibit the uncontrolled disposal of waste, and have to promote prevention, recycling and reuse of wastes. ¾ Co-operation between the Member States is needed in order to set up an adequate network of waste disposal installations that guarantee a high level of environmental protection. ¾ Member States have to make sure that all waste is handed over to private or public collection agencies or disposal companies. ¾ Companies treating, storing or dumping waste for another party must

obtain authorisation from the competent authorities. ¾ Companies disposing of their own waste should also get authorisation. 20Resource%20Management%20Policy.pdf 9 www.europaeuint/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l21197htm 18 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. ¾ In accordance with the “polluter pays” principle, the producer who generated the waste must pay for the cost of disposal. ¾ The competent authorities appointed by the Member States are in charge of working out at least one waste management plan. Directive 91/689/EEC on Hazardous Waste10 This directive is a complement for the waste framework

directive for hazardous waste. The objective of the directive is the management, recovery and correct disposal of hazardous waste. The main elements of the directive are: ¾ The properties that make any waste type hazardous are listed in the annexes of the directive. By these lists, any waste can be identified as either hazardous or not. ¾ Member States have to ensure that hazardous waste is not mixed with other hazardous or non-hazardous wastes, and that all hazardous waste is recorded and identified. ¾ Any establishment dealing with hazardous waste must obtain a permit. They must be subject to regular inspections and have to keep a record of their activities. ¾ Competent authorities have to make plans for the management of hazardous waste and the Commission has the task to evaluate these. ¾ Member States can derogate from the directive when there is a case of great danger or emergency, but the Commission has to be informed of any such derogation. ¾ The annexes of the directive

can be changed in order to be in accordance with scientific and technological progress. The Fifth Environmental Action Programme (1993-2000) was underpinned by the concept of sustainable development. It introduced a new approach, which differed from the previous ones in that it supported a proactive approach against the previously used corrective ones. A good example for this new approach is the launch of the Priority Waste 10 www.europaeuint/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l21199htm 19 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. Stream Programme, which was aimed at dealing with important waste streams like

tyres, vehicle and other, in an integrated way. Similar to the Fourth Programme, this one too, put emphasis on the introduction of new control and influence methods, other than legislation. Public participation, education as well as the already mentioned economic instruments were more and more widely used. This underlined again, that the objective was no longer to handle the waste and resources issue through previously set legislation, but instead to create an environment where the sustainable resources management would be feasible. The most important legislation adopted in the context of this programme were: the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive 94/62/EC, the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive 96/61/EC, the Landfill of Waste Directive 1999/31/EC and the Waste Incineration Directive 2000/76/EC. I will now present the most important points of these directives. Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive 94/62/EC11 The objective of the directive is to

harmonise the national ways of packaging and packaging waste management. The most important points of the directive are: ¾ It covers all packaging and all packaging waste placed on the market regardless of the material it is made of. ¾ Member States must take measures in order to prevent the formation of packaging waste, and they must introduce systems for recovery and recycling of used packaging. ¾ The requirements concerning the composition of packaging are also laid down in the directive. ¾ In order to monitor the implementation of the objectives of the directive, Member States must ensure that harmonised databases on packaging and packaging waste are established. Member States must report regularly to the Commission on the implementation of the directive. Landfill of Waste Directive 1999/31/EC12 11 12 http://www.europaeuint/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l21207htm http://www.europaeuint/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l21208htm 20 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár

teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. The main objective of the directive is to minimise the negative environmental effects of landfill by introducing strict technical requirements for landfills. The most important features of the directive are: ¾ It identifies the most important categories of waste to which it applies and those to which it does not and classifies the landfills according to the categories above. For example: landfills for hazardous, non-hazardous and inert waste. ¾ The directive lays down the criteria for accepting waste in landfills in order to avoid any risks. It also lists those types of waste that are strictly prohibited to accept for

landfill. ¾ A system for operation permits is also set up for landfill sites. Waste Incineration Directive 2000/76/EC13 The objective of the directive is to reduce the damage caused by the incineration of waste to the environment as well as human health. In brief, the directive states: ¾ The scope of the directive spreads to the incineration of non-toxic wastes and it intends to fill the gaps left by previous legislation (i.e Municipal Waste Incineration directives 89/369/EEC and 89/429/EEC). ¾ It applies to co-incineration plants, which are intended to produce energy and material products using waste as a regular or additional fuel. ¾ The heat produced by incineration has to be put to good use as far as possible. ¾ It states the limit numbers for emissions in both incineration and co-incineration plants and also provides measures for the process of incineration. Concerning the waste management legislation it is very important to note that in order to make it more understandable,

it can be divided into three categories. Horizontal legislation (which includes for example the Framework Directive on waste) gives an overall framework for the legislation, the main definitions and the most important principles. Legislation on waste treatment operations including disposal includes such directives as the directive on landfill and on incineration. These, set out the requirements for the final handling of waste, they clarify the permit conditions for establishments, and the environmental standards they have to keep to. 13 http://www.europaeuint/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l28072htm 21 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem

kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. The third category is the legislation on specific waste streams. Among these the Directive on Packaging and Packaging Waste can be mentioned, but there are many directives in this category. The growing amount, and complexity of some waste streams, and the need of control over them in terms of hazardousness has motivated this legislation. 3.3 The waste management policy of the Sixth Environmental Action Programme14 As described in the previous chapter, the Sixth Environmental Action Programme (20012010) of the Community was developed in order to further ameliorate the achievements of the previous programme and also to introduce a more integrated approach into environmental policy. In this new programme, decision-makers have chosen four priority areas within the context of environmental policy. Among these four areas is the issue of waste management, together with the sustainable use of natural resources. With the reasonable use of natural

resources, a lower volume can be reached in waste generation. The two areas are therefore very closely related to each other. In the following I will describe the objectives set out by the programme for both areas and the policy approach used to reach these. 3.31 The sustainable use of natural resources Our planet’s resources, and in particular the environmental and renewable resources (air, soil, wateretc) are under serious pressure from the growing population, the development of the economy and the ever increasing demand for them. This serious growth in consumption of these resources is reaching the edge of the carrying capacity of the planet. Lack of fresh water and desertification are no longer rare phenomena in many parts of the world. In the case of non-renewable resources, such as metals and minerals, the use of these and the generated waste from them cause serious damage to the environment and human health. 14 Source: 6th Environmental Action Programme, full text:

http://europa.euint/eur-lex/en/com/pdf/2001/en 501PC0031pdf 22 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. The objective of the programme in this area is to ensure that the consumption of these resources does not exceed the carrying capacity of the planet, to decouple resource consumption from economic growth and to lower the amount of waste generated through their consumption. As a first step, the policy described in the Programme states the need for a Thematic Strategy on the sustainable use of natural resources, especially non-renewable resources. The basic approach for setting this strategy is to:

¾ Establish a framework to identify criteria for setting priorities and undertake the necessary data collection and analysis to identify the resources that are of most concern. ¾ Identify and implement specific policy measures that reduce the consumption of these resources for example by changing demand, improving the efficiency with which they are used, preventing the wastage of these resources and by improving the extent to which they are recycled back into the economy after use. Some specific measures that are to be taken are also listed in the programme. These are aimed at helping the implementation of the described policy approach. These measures are: ¾ Promote research and development into less resource-intensive products and production. ¾ Use of taxes and other economic instruments in a way that encourages the use of more resource-efficient technologies, products and services. ¾ Removal of subsidies that encourage the over use of resources. The implementation of the

strategy requires actions at different levels of government and in the different sectors of the economy. These actions will, however, be rewarding, as by improving resource efficiency, economic efficiency will increase and this will enhance competitiveness and innovation. 3.32 Waste Prevention and Management As our society gets wealthier, the demand for products increases. This, together with decreasing product life cycles generates increasing quantities of waste. At the same time, products are becoming more and more complex, using a large variety of substances, and therefore will become hazardous waste after use. 23 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de

csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. Amounts of waste generated in the Community are projected to increase, unless some serious action is taken to prevent this. The enormous amounts of waste, apart from requiring large portions of valuable land, contaminate the environment and are extremely harmful to human health. The Sixth Environmental Action Programme sets out various objectives and targets in the field of waste management. The main objective of the Programme is to decouple waste generation from economic growth and achieve an overall reduction in waste volumes by introducing improved waste prevention initiatives, better resource efficiency and a shift towards more sustainable consumption. The main objective, therefore, is to prevent waste from actually arising For wastes that are still generated, the aim is to achieve a situation, where: ¾ The wastes are non-hazardous, or at least present a very low risk for the environment and human health. ¾ The

majority of waste is reintroduced into the economic cycle by recycling, or is returned into the environment in a harmless form. ¾ The quantity of the waste that still needs to go to final disposal has to be reduced to an absolute minimum. ¾ Waste should be treated as closely as possible to where it is generated. Specific targets are also set in the Programme: ¾ The quantity of waste going to final disposal has to be reduced by 20% until 2010 compared to 2000, and by 50% until 2050. ¾ The quantity of hazardous waste generated should be reduced by 20% until 2010 compared to 2000, and by 50% until 2020. The policy approach of the programme is based on the principle of waste hierarchy. This principle gives preference first to waste prevention, then to waste recovery and finally waste disposal. The policy is based on Community legislation (described earlier in the chapter). In connection with the legislation, the Programme states, that specific attention will be given to the

implementation of the existing measures by the Member States. For achieving the holistic use of the waste hierarchy, the Community has worked out policy approaches for its levels separately. 24 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. In the case of waste prevention (the most favoured area), the aim is to decrease volumes and also hazardousness. This means that waste prevention applies to both quantitative and qualitative matters. In order to achieve this aim, waste generation needs to be decoupled from economic growth. As waste prevention is closely linked with resource efficiency, the preventive

action must be taken at source, at the production stage itself and along with this, changes in consumption patterns should be backed. In terms of specific actions this means, on the one hand, making producers responsible for the treatment of waste generated by their products and the substitution of hazardous substances with less hazardous ones, and on the other hand, encouraging the use of economic instruments to reduce the use of resource- and waste-intensive processes and products. According to the waste hierarchy, waste recovery has to be used in the case of wastes that can not be prevented, with particular emphasis on recycling. In previous programmes, recycling was mainly aimed at specific waste streams, such as packaging waste, but now focus is on a more general approach. Recycling is now promoted in all areas, but it is important to note that only to the extent where it still makes sense and there is a net environmental benefit. Actions to be taken towards a Thematic Strategy on

waste recycling are described in the Programme. These are: ¾ To identify which wastes should be recycled as a priority. ¾ Formulate policies and measures that ensure the collection and recycling of the priority waste streams. These include recycling targets and monitoring systems ¾ Identify policies that could encourage the creation of markets for the recycled products. The Sixth Environmental Action Programme, as it can be seen, gives very specific tasks for the Community in terms of waste management. The most important goal set by the programme is to decouple waste generation from economic growth, to enhance the efficient and sustainable use of natural resources, to 25 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások

nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. improve producer responsibility and to change consumption patterns in favour of more environmentally friendly products. These four main goals are targeted through a series of action plans. These do not only apply at the Community level, but also need to be followed by all levels of national governments. In order to be able to assess the waste management plan of the Sixth Environmental Action Programme, we should wait until 2010 at least, but probably even longer. The reason for this is, that although the measures described in the programme are very good, it is difficult to forecast how they will be implemented and used, how producers and consumers will react to them. Although, in my opinion, it is probable that the reception of the new measures will be positive, as people are getting more and more conscious about their own role in the protection of the environment.

In the following chapter I will give a specific example of how a Member State deals with waste management within its own borders. 26 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 4 Waste management policy and practice in Sweden In the previous chapter, I described the waste management policy of the European Union. In this chapter I will give a specific example on how the EU’s policy is applied in a Member State, and for this purpose I have chosen Sweden. The reason for my choice is that Sweden is in a very good state of applying Community rules in this area and has waste management practices that can

serve as an example not only for the accessing countries, but other Member States as well. I would like to underline that it is not only the country’s decision making bodies who give special attention to this issue, but also the population as well, meaning not only individuals, but producers and all those who “produce” waste. I find this very important to mention, because without them, effective and efficient waste management would be unimaginable. It is a society that has understood the importance of the issue, and also, that it is only with the participation of everybody, that the common goal of a sustainable environment can be achieved. In this chapter I will first outline in brief the history of waste management in Sweden. Then I will give a review of the concerning Swedish legislation, the division of responsibilities in waste management, I will write in brief about collection and transportation issues, waste economy and I will also give specific data about waste issues in

Sweden in 2002 (the latest year available). 4.1 Brief history of Swedish waste management15 The first, so called, Public Cleansing Authorities in Sweden were set up in the second half of the 19th century. The reasons for this were the spreading diseases and the growing amount of waste. It was becoming clear for the Central Government that the Municipalities themselves should be entitled to provide this service. As for every service provided, in this case too, there was a fee to be charged, but in the beginning this did not include the cost of treatment and disposal, only collection. By the 1960s, the service expanded to cover all 15 www.rietorg/conference/conference-files/B%Paulsson%2001doc 27 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon

felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. urban citizens, but due to the increasing amount of waste, pressure was also on for technical development of treatment and disposal methods. The 1970s brought along the first real challenges for Municipalities. Many discovered that they were running out of available land for landfills and that this method was not going to be affordable for individual Municipalities. Multi-municipal co-operations became the solution for this problem, and these associations later became the centres of competence in management skills and development of new methods. Together with the growing amount of waste, new treatment and disposal methods were also developed. Nowadays waste management has become much more than merely a sanitary problem. Efficient waste management is a must for every society. In Sweden this has been recognised at all levels. Apart

from the economic instruments such as taxes and fees, information campaigns are also used to reach the set goals for waste management. All the efforts together have led to the extremely prominent situation, where Sweden is about 30-50 years ahead of other countries in terms of managing waste. 4.2 Waste legislation in Sweden Waste legislation in Sweden can not be separated from Community legislation. As a result of this, the past few years have brought quite a few changes to Swedish waste policy. These, however, have not only been the result of Community decisions, but of national ambitions as well. The waste hierarchy described in the Sixth Environmental Action Programme of the Community is also adopted in Sweden, and the concerning legislation is developed in accordance with this principle. Chapter 15 of the Environmental Code, SFS 1998:808 gives the definitions and the general framework for waste management. In addition, there are a number of other provisions concerning the topic.

In the following I will give a review of these, but it is very important to note that the concerning Community legislation described in the previous chapter also applies in Sweden, although I will not describe them in this chapter again. 28 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 16 4.21 The Environmental Quality Objectives Bill 1999 The Bill describes 15 environmental goals, with corresponding subsidiary targets. The 15 goals describe the environmental conditions that the country should reach within one generation. The concerning targets are measurable and time-bound, in order to ensure the

achievement of the goals and through them a more sustainable development. From among the 15 overall goals, there are two, which affect waste management. First, the goal of groundwater of good quality, with the subsidiary goal of higher and more uniform environmental requirements for landfills and second, a good living environment, with the subsidiary goal of reduced quantities of waste going to landfill. There are some specific targets for waste management as well: ¾ Reduce the quantity of waste ¾ Reduction of the quantity of waste going to landfill with 50% by 2005 (compared to 1994) ¾ Reduction of the hazardous content of waste Now I will give a review on the main legislation in order of the year they were introduced. 4.22 Year 2000 In the year 2000 tax on waste going to landfill was introduced.17 The law constituted the biggest change for Swedish waste management in economic terms. The main aim of the legislation was to increase costs and steer away flows of waste from landfill

by making other treatments economically more attractive. 4.23 Year 200118 A new ordinance on landfill was passed. This incorporated the Community’s landfill directive into Swedish legislation. According to it, all landfills must be conform with the strict environmental rules by 2008. The other rule introduced this year was the rule on handling electric and electronic waste. Completely new conditions for separating and handling emerged, as a result of the new requirements for pre-treatment and producer responsibility. 16 www.regeringense/galactica/service=irnews/action=obj show?c obj id=41557 www.rvfse/startsidanhtml 18 www.rvfse/startsidanhtml Swedish Waste Management 2002 17 29 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók

változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 4.24 Year 2002 On 1st of January of this year a totally new waste ordinance came into force. This new legislation comprises two previous ones (Waste Collection and Disposal Ordinance and Ordinance on Hazardous Waste), which have ceased to apply. The new Waste Ordinance incorporates the new EU Waste List into Swedish legislation and also simplifies permit procedures. During this same year a requirement for separating and a ban on landfilling combustible waste were introduced. The tax on landfilled waste was also raised and a ban on landfilling organic waste from 2005 was also decided about. 4.25 Year 200319 In 2003, the EU issued a new directive on waste from electric and electronic equipment, but for Sweden this does not mean significant changes, as the national legislation introduced in 2001 within the same area, is very similar. The Community

Directive on Incineration on Waste (described in the previous chapter) was introduced into Swedish Legislation under the name of Ordinance on Waste Incineration. In May 2003 the government presented its bill “A Society with a Non-toxic and Resource Saving Ecocycle”. The bill deals with questions of producer responsibility, tax on incinerated waste, biological recycling and the role of local authorities in waste management. On January 2003 the tax on landfilled waste was raised once again, and has therefore risen by 50% since its introduction in 2000. It can be seen that in questions of waste management, Swedish legislation goes beyond Community rules. They set national goals and back them with strict national legislation They do not only go further than Community rules in strictness, but also in time. Often only minor changes have to made to Swedish legislation in order to comply with the EU rules (e.g in the case of electric and electronic equipment or the case of landfills) 19

www.rvfse/startsidanhtml Swedish Waste Management 2003 30 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 4.3 Responsibility distribution in Swedish Waste Management The distribution of responsibility in questions of waste is stated in the Swedish Environmental Code. The responsibility is divided between three actors: the local council, producers and those who give rise to other waste. The local authorities are responsible for transporting household waste within the Municipality to a treatment station. This, on the other hand, implies an obligation for those who give rise to household waste to hand it over

to the local authorities. It is important to note that it is not possible to hand over the task of managing household waste to anyone but the local council. The cost of municipal waste management is paid by the households through a fee, and it is obligatory for everyone to follow the rules concerning waste management in their municipality. The rules are decided by the local council Producers are responsible for waste covered by statutory producer responsibility. There are five categories of this type of waste today: packaging waste of various materials, waste paper, tyres, cars and electric and electronic products. Producers are obliged to look after the collection and recycling of these wastes. There has been an agreement between the local authorities and the producers in the case of electric waste. The local authorities collect the electric household waste, while the producers are responsible for recycling it. The third party responsible is anyone who gives rise to waste other than

household waste or waste covered by producer responsibility. Anyone within this category is obliged to ensure that the generated waste is handled and disposed of in an environmentally correct way. The costs are paid directly by the producer of the waste 4.4 Collection and transport of waste More and more municipalities are introducing systems were the households sort their waste before collection. Separation of organic and combustible fractions is now an established custom in about 50 of the 289 municipalities in Sweden.20 There are 20 www.rietorg/conference/conference-files/B%20Paulsson%2001doc 31 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra

nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. differences in the frequency of collection of the different types of waste. Organic fractions are usually collected once a fortnight while other fractions are often only collected every fourth week. Different types of waste are usually collected in bags of different colours This way, only one container per household has to be collected, and there is no need for multi-compartment vehicles either. The different coloured bags are optically sorted before final treatment. This makes the handling of waste much easier In the case of bulky waste, house owners are encouraged to take their waste to municipal recycling centres, but there is a service of collecting bulky waste from the households, if the owners wish. Waste from electric and electronic equipment and hazardous waste is also directed to the sorting plants. At the recycling centres waste is sorted according to properties. The sorting of waste has created a whole new profession, where a high

knowledge of materials is needed. Apart from sorting waste, recycling centres also give information to the public about waste management issues. These sorting plants have been operating in Sweden since the 1970s. There, recyclable waste was separated from mixed waste, but this is an extremely difficult, if not an impossible task. This is why nowadays the waste that goes to the sorting plants is already separated to a certain degree. Changes have occurred in the collection of industrial waste. Producer responsibility and other legislation, together with economic reasons and growing environmental awareness have forced producers to separate their waste before collection and use different containers to make collection easier. Collection is still mostly done with traditional rear loading vehicles. For packaging waste there are over 7000 recycling stations in Sweden. Here there are separate containers for glass, metal, plastic and paper. Private contractors collect about 60 percent of waste

in bins and sacks on behalf of municipalities. The municipalities themselves collect the remaining 40 percent The main way of collecting the waste is with the traditional back-loaded vehicles, but the collection with side-loaded vehicles still has a ten percent market share. Some municipalities are introducing identification systems, which note and report data on the individual bins. Weighing systems are also introduced Through them, information can be given to the house-owners, about the amount of waste they generate and the system can also be used to set fees. 32 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű

alkalmazásokhoz. 4.5 Waste Economy Under the subtitle of waste economy I will discuss the financial build-up of waste management in Sweden. The responsibility of managing household waste rests with municipalities, and in the case of materials covered by statutory producer responsibility, with producers. This way, the costs of waste management are covered on the one hand by waste management fees charged by municipalities (waste taxes are very rare), and on the other hand environmental levies on products, charged by the producers. The waste management fees are set by the local council. Individual households can only be granted total exemption from the waste management fee, if they are totally unoccupied. A basic fee, however, always has to be paid to cover communal costs. Waste management fees are often used as economic incentives to make households manage their waste in an environmentally compliant way. Nowadays municipalities often divide the set fees into a fixed and a variable

part. This way, the house-owner itself can influence the amount to be paid. The reason for this is the wide range of activities that the fee needs to cover, but that often depend on the quantity and the “quality” of the waste generated. The environmental levies on products are set by the producers in order to cover their costs in the managing of waste. The levies are included in the price of the products, so they are not charged separately. The total cost per person per year for waste management in an average household is about SEK 500.21 This includes the costs for collection, treatment and transport 4.6 Quantities of waste in 200222 In the following I will analyse the actual situation in Sweden concerning waste management. I will analyse the most recent data available at the moment, which is data concerning the year 2002. 21 22 www.rvfse/startsidanhtml Swedish Waste Management 2003 All specific data in this sub-chapter from: www.rvfse/startsidanhtml Swedish Waste Management

2003 33 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. In general it can be said that there was more waste in 2002 than in the previous years, but it was better managed. The total amount of household waste was 4,172,200 tons (that is 476 kg per inhabitant), which is an increase of 6.2 per cent compared to the previous year The management of the generated waste has developed in a favourable direction. The increase in material recycling and the decrease in the amount of waste going to landfill both show that the management of waste is going in the right direction. Graph no. 2: Source: www.rvfse Swedish

Waste Management 2003 Distribution of Treatment Methods for Household Waste 2002 1% 20% 31% 9% Hazardous Waste Material Recycling Biological Treatment Incineration 39% Landfill The above diagram shows the degree of use of different treatment methods for household waste in 2002. In the following I will analyse each of the treatment methods, in turn I will concentrate on the numbers concerning household waste, but I will also write about the situation with industrial waste. The reason for this separation of the types of waste is that in the case of industrial waste there is less available data at the national level. Industrial waste is waste produced by the industries throughout the production processes, or other activities. Household and comparable waste comprises waste in bins and bags, bulky waste, including green waste, hazardous waste and shop and office waste. 4.61 Material recycling The amount of household waste being recycled is rising significantly. This increase concerns

all types material. In numbers, this means that the amount of household waste recycled has risen from 28.9% to 31% compared to the previous year 34 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. Household waste is very complex. The different types of household waste are not recycled by the same degree, but it is true for all types that there has been an increase since the previous year. Graph no. 3: Source: www.rvfse Swedish Waste Management 2003 Percentage of Types of Waste Recycled 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Pa pe r O e ffic pa rd Ca pe bo r ard c pa ka ge s Me tal p. s Pla tic

p. Gl as sp . WE EE 2001 2002 It can be seen from the graph that there has been an increase in the recycling of all types of waste except in the case of waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE), where the numbers remained the same. There are however certain things that need to be noted: ¾ In the case of paper, the increase in the percentage recycled has come together with a fall in the number of tons collected from households. The numbers, however, are very good by international standards. ¾ In the case of office paper unfortunately there is no decrease in consumption. Therefore a further increase in recycling is needed. ¾ Packaging material is always a delicate issue, as it accounts for most of household waste. Packaging waste is covered by producer responsibility and the numbers are, therefore, those reported by the companies. Nonetheless the 35 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a

szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. percentage going to recycling has improved in all types of packaging waste (cardboard, metal, plastic, glass). The numbers, however, do not reach the targets set by the Ordinance on Producer Responsibility. The table below shows some of the recycling target numbers, together with the actual percentages. Table no.1: Type of Package Target percentage by weight Actual percentage Cardboard 70%, but at least 40% 43,7% Plastic 70%, but at least 30% 17,6% Glass 70% 87,5% Metal 70% 62% Source: www.rvfse Swedish Waste Management 2003 However good the actual numbers are by international standards, except for glass packages, they do not reach the target numbers set

nationally. ¾ The stability in the recycling of WEEE is due to the introduction of producer responsibility in the second half of 2001, which resulted in a major improvement then. 4.62 Landfill The total amount of waste going to landfill is decreasing continuously. This is due to the strict regulations concerning landfill and the imposed tax on landfill, which since its introduction in 2000, has been raised by 50 percent. In numbers, the total quantity of household waste going to landfill has decreased in 2002 compared to 2001 by 6%. The total amount of waste going to landfill has decreased by 11%. The quantities of waste from some of the most important waste streams deposited in landfills are shown in the table below. The quantities are shown in 1000s of tons Table no. 2: Types of waste 1998 Household and comparable waste 1,065 960 865 880 825 45 45 53 44 38 800 740 640 530 Green waste Construction and demolition waste 740 1999 2000 2001 2002 36 BGF KKFK

Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. Waste from energy recovery Industrial waste Special waste 710 670 525 505 520 1,435 1,630 1,575 1,500 1,360 203 208 255 190 185 Source: www.rvfse Swedish Waste Management 2003 The following table shows the total quantities deposited at landfill sites in the past five years. Table no. 3: Quantity in 1000s of tons 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 4,900 5,005 4,540 4,240 3,770 Source: www.rvfse Swedish Waste Management 2003 It can be seen that apart from the year 1999, when in some of the cases the amount of waste going to landfill grew, there is a

stable decrease in the numbers. Compared to 2001, all quantities have decreased except from special waste and waste from energy recovery. The reasons for this are the combined effects of economic changes and that more and more waste is sorted and handled in other ways than landfill. In the case of landfill it is important to note that nowadays the large landfill sites are designed for much more than landfilling operations. These other operations include the sorting of waste for transport, recycling and energy recovery. At most large landfill sites there is some form of composting or digestion. In many sites energy is won from landfilled biodegradable waste. When biodegradable material is broken down in a landfill site under oxygen-free conditions, landfill gas is formed, which can be recovered and used to produce energy as heat, fuel or electricity. The so called “leachate”, which is water that has come into contact with waste, is collected and purified at many landfill sites. No

leachate is left to filter into the environment As landfill decreases each year thanks to the legislation and the taxes, less and less landfill sites are needed. The sites that are no longer used must be “reclamated” This means that they must be turned into recreation areas, for example. During the past year over SEK 11 billion was allocated for such purposes. 37 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 4.63 Biological treatment In the year 2002, 8.5 percent of household waste underwent biological treatment This is an increase of five percent compared to the previous year. The total amount of

biologically treated waste also increased by five percent. This total amount of waste treated biologically, consists of: Table no. 4: Type of waste Quantity in tons Source-separated biological household waste 77,000 Green waste (park and garden waste) 173,000 Source-separated household waste(residual waste) 34,000 Home-composted household waste 70,000 Source: www.rvfse Swedish Waste Management 2003 Municipalities have plans, which suggest that the amount of biologically treated waste can be doubled within a few years. Many new sites are under construction and many municipalities are planning to introduce separate collection of source-sorted biowaste. New rules have come into force in the past year concerning biological treatment. On the 1st of May 2002, the EC ordinance on animal by-products came into force. It divides animal waste into three different categories, each associated with a treatment method: Category 1 includes animal waste with BSE risk. This waste has to be

destroyed automatically by incineration. Category 2 includes animal waste with risk of animal diseases. The treatment method for this waste is digestion, landfill or composting after sterilisation or incineration. Category 3 includes waste from healthy animals and the prescribed treatment is digestion or composting after pasteurisation. 4.64 Waste to energy – incineration In the waste hierarchy set up by the EU, incineration was mentioned as the final solution for waste that can not be prevented, reused or recycled. Incineration, if carried out under strict supervision, is a safe way of disposing of waste. Through it, energy can be recovered, while volumes are reduced to a tenth and the original weight of waste to a quarter. Environmental damage can be minimised by close supervision and tight regulations. 38 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb

jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. In Sweden, the rests from incinerated waste (slag and ashes) are disposed of in a safe way through landfill, mostly used in the case of slag, and bottom ashes are used as a substitute for gravel in road constructions. Incineration with energy recovery is the most common method of treating household waste in Sweden today. In 2002, 1,675,000 tons of household waste were incinerated, which is about 40% of the total amount, and it means an increase of 8.8 percent Besides household waste, other types of waste have also been incinerated. This means mostly industrial waste, and in numbers it is about 1,116,000 tons. In total this gives an amount of 2,790,000 tons of waste incinerated in Sweden during the past year. With this number,

incineration is the most widely used method for household waste treatment in the country Energy recovery is the most important issue concerning waste incineration. The following table shows the amount of waste incinerated in the past five years (in tons) and the energy production from the incinerated waste in each of the same years (in MWh): Table no. 5: 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 - Household 1,464,030 1,439,550 1,456,600 1,504,200 1,675,180 - Industry and other 806,710 701,580 890,530 955,110 1,115,730 TOTAL 2,270,740 2,141,130 2,347,130 2,459,310 2,790,910 - Heat 6,747,250 6,161,060 6,922,320 7,762,790 8,019,170 - Electricity 416,480 275,470 246,160 324,490 616,560 TOTAL 7,163,730 6,436,530 7,168,480 8,087,280 8,635,730 Incinerated waste (in tons) Production (in MWh) Source: www.rvfse Swedish Waste Management 2003 It can be seen from the table, that both the amount of waste going to incineration, and the amount of energy gained from it, are

increasing. This is very good, as it means that waste is disposed of safely and with beneficial side-effects (i.e the gained energy) 39 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. When incinerated, household waste only contributes marginally to an increase in the greenhouse effect, as it mostly consists of renewable material – biofuel. Combustible household waste, therefore, can take the place of fossil fuels and other biofuels. In Sweden there is a unique situation concerning the use of energy from waste incineration. Some 95% of the heat generated is used for district heating, covering just over

10% of the local need in Sweden, but there are some cities, where over half the need is satisfied this way. From December 2002, the new Swedish ordinance and regulation for the incineration of waste and hazardous waste was introduced. The new legislation tightens restrictions on emissions to water and air, and sets new technical requirements. The new rules apply to all new plants immediately and to existing ones from December 2005. The rules also apply to co-incineration plants, which will also have to comply with the environmental standards by the deadline mentioned above. The ban on landfilling separated combustible waste has risen the demand for incineration plants. There is actually a shortage of capacity for incineration of waste This shortage may become more grave, when the ban on the landfill of organic waste comes into force (in 2005). This is why existing plants are now being expanded and new plants are currently being built. 4.65 Hazardous waste There are no exact details on

the amount of hazardous waste in Sweden. It is estimated that in the case of industries it is about 850,000 tons annually, while the corresponding figure for households is about 23,000 tons. This means, that in average, 26 kg of hazardous waste per person were handed in during 2002. In the case of industries, every company is obliged to ensure that hazardous waste is handled correctly, by checking that those who do the transportation and receive the waste have permits to do so. Households still do not have the statutory duty to separate their hazardous waste. However, many municipalities include this obligation in their waste collection order. In terms of collection, by far the most common way in Sweden is at manned recycling centres, which exist in almost all municipalities. Roughly half of the municipalities also have hazardous 40 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést.

A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. waste collection points, for example at filling stations and shopping malls. Mobile collection points and battery boxes are also widely used. These latter two serve for the compulsory collection of batteries. All batteries must be collected, and municipalities are responsible for the collection. Discarded batteries can be brought to recycling centres, recycling stations, and the above mentioned hazardous waste collection points. For fridges and freezers it is also the responsibility of the municipalities to ensure that the discarded refrigerators are taken away. Since the 1st of January 2002 a new waste list has been introduced. The new list comprises both hazardous and non-hazardous waste, and introduces new

ways of classing these. 4.66 Industrial waste There are no complete statistics on the exact quantities of waste from industry and similar activities. However, great changes have taken place in the way this type of waste is treated, especially non-trade-specific waste and construction and demolition waste. The reason for this is the ban on the landfill of combustible waste since the 1st of January 2002. As a result, the amount deposited in landfill fell during 2002 by about 200,000 tons, while the amount going to incineration rose by approximately 315,000 tons. These numbers, on the other hand, suggest that the total amount of industrial waste has also increased. Industry is responsible for looking after its own waste, partly as a result of producer responsibility. Waste management in Sweden is one of the most developed in the European Union. As it can be seen from the numbers, the methods used give very good results. It is outstanding how they have managed to reduce the amount of

waste going to landfill, and the high amount, and still improving amount of energy gained from incineration. Recycling should be a must in every country, and in Sweden the numbers are high by international standards. Separate collection is widely used and still spreading Recycling stations are not only used for sorting waste, but also to give information to citizens. The waste management practices used in Sweden have to serve as an example for accessing countries and the whole Community. 41 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 5 Environmental Protection in Hungary The state of the Hungarian

environment can be considered good by international standards. This, however, does not apply to all segment s of the environment. In terms of biological diversity Hungary is in a better state than many EU countries, but in questions of, for example, waste management, we are well behind. After the change of regime in 1990, the overall state of the environment improved due to the fallback in the most pollutant industries, the change of production patterns and the decrease in consumption. The decrease in energy consumption in the first half of the 1990s also had a positive impact on the environment just as well as the diminution of the use of chemicals in the agriculture. In the field of environmental protection Hungary has achieved major results, but at the same time there are paradox processes going on. Many actors of the Hungarian economy still use extremely out-of-date production methods, which intensively pollute the environment. On the other hand, the intense investment of foreign

working capital brings along the most modern technologies. The two phenomena together result in a lower number of emission of pollutants per capita than in more developed countries. It can be said that Hungary’s most important duties in the field of environmental protection can be divided into three main categories: air-quality protection, water-quality protection and waste management. These three are therefore the main areas, on which environmental policy makers should concentrate. In this chapter I will give an overall view of the Hungarian environmental policy. First I will give a short historical introduction, then I will write about the legal basis, and the legislation and finally I will describe the Second National Environmental Protection Programme in detail, with its bases and goals, with particular reference to waste management issues. 42 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad

információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 5.1 Short history of Hungary’s environmental policy23 Hungary’s Constitution states that “everyone has the right for a healthy environment” (18.§) Before the modification of the Constitution in 1989, it was the Act 1976/II, which lay down the legal framework for environmental protection. It was on the basis of this act that other legislation concerning the different specialities of environmental protection were introduced. Since the 1990s, environmental legislation was placed on an entirely new basis. Completely new legislation was introduced. Many laws have been accepted by the Parliament in the past decade. I will analyse these in detail later on in the chapter. Here I

will only provide a list of the most important ones: • the 1995/LIII Act on the general rules of environmental protection • the 1995/LVI Act on environmental product charges • he 1996/LIII Act on the protection of the natural environment • the 1997/LXXVIII Act on the protection of the built environment The First National Environmental Protection Programme, which was in force from 1997 until 2002, was accepted by the Parliament in 1997. Today, the second Programme is in force, until 2008. There has been a separate ministry for environmental questions since 1987. The name has changed often, now it is called Ministry of the Environment and Water. The ministry’s main task is the planning of the country’s environmental policy, and the harmonisation of the measures taken in the field of environmental protection. 5.2 Environmental legislation in Hungary Hungarian basic environmental legislation can be divided into seven main categories: the Constitutional provisions, the

rules of the establishment, the rules concerning proceedings, the financial bases of environmental protection, the provisions concerning individuals, the provisions concerning punishment in case of offences, and other regulations. Apart from these seven categories there are the rules applying to the different areas of environmental 23 www.kumhu/eu/magyar/kiadvanyok/kornypdf 43 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. protection, like waste management, water and soil protection, nature protection, air-quality protection and other. I will now describe in more detail the pieces of legislation that

are most important. I will not touch upon all categories, only the basic environmental legislation. I will deal with waste management legislation in the following chapter. - The 1995/LIII Act on the general rules of environmental protection The main aim of the act is to ensure the protection of the environment and of human health, to ensure the sustainable use of natural resources and to harmonise economic development with environmental goals. The act makes clear the basic definitions concerning environmental protection and also the most important principles. These are: the principle of precaution, prevention and correction. The law also states that the basis for environmental protection planning should be the National Environmental Protection Programme, which has to be renewed every six years. - The 1995/LVI Act on environmental product charges The main aim of the legislation is to ensure the financial bases for the prevention, and minimisation of the environmental damages

caused through the process of production, distribution and consumption of a product. Apart from the most important national legislation, there are various international treaties that the country has to keep to. Today, the most important international treaty that Hungary has to keep is the accession treaty with the European Union. Environment is the 22nd chapter of the treaty Its main points are:24 ⇒ According to the estimations of the Hungarian Government, the total amount of investment needed in order to totally comply with EU regulations reaches €10 billion ⇒ The integration of directive 92/43/EEC on the preservation of the natural living environment and the wildlife, into national legislation. ⇒ Hungary has asked for derogations in the following areas: - until 2005, Hungary has been granted exemption from the recycling of at least 50 percent of packaging waste and at least 15 percent of plastic and 24 EU-csatlakozás 2004 (EU-accession 2004), Hungarian Ministry of Foreign

Affairs, 2003 44 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. glass packaging. - Hungary has been granted exemption from under the regulations concerning the incineration of hazardous waste until the 30th June, 2005. - Concerning the limit of emission of pollutants, technologies can be developed until 31st December, 2004 5.3 The Second National Environmental Protection Programme (NEPP – II)25 I will now present the Second National Environmental Protection Programme. The specific rules for working out the Programme are set in the 1995/LIII Act. The duration of the Second Programme is from 2003 until

2008, and it was accepted by the Government in 2001. The Programme has two main pillars. The first one is made up of the experiences gained through the implementation of the First Programme. The second pillar is based on the fact that throughout the duration of the Programme, Hungary will become member of the European Union. This means that the Programme will not only have to comply with the national rules, but also with the EU’s environmental regulations as well. Therefore, the Programme’s second pillar is the EU’s Sixth Environmental Action Programme. The national Programme has to create a framework suitable for applying the EU’s quantitative and qualitative objectives at a national and regional level. 5.31 The Programme’s principles The NEPP – II is built on the most important national and international environmental policy principles. These principles can be divided into three categories: ⇒ The first category is made up of the, by now, traditional principles. These

are: the principle of precaution, prevention and correction, of responsibility, of cooperation, of information and the polluter pays principle. ⇒ The second category are the environmental principles followed in more developed countries, which can serve as a good example for Hungary. Among 25 Source: Full text of the NEPP – II, at: www.kvvmhu/korny/nkp2/nkp2pdf 45 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. these principles are the principle of divided responsibility; the assurance of transparency in questions of planning, decision-making, financing and supervision; and the principles of

partnership, subsidiarity and additionality. ⇒ The third category comprises the principles of sustainable development, which have to be followed by the Second Programme. By following these principles the Programme can help build the social, economic and environmental conditions needed to move towards a more sustainable development. 5.32 The framework for implementation of the Programme The Second National Environmental Protection Programme does not only take effect in the different sectors of the economy, but in the whole society as well. The goals set by the Programme can not be reached without the support of the whole society as well as the other ministries. The Programme concentrates on environmental problems that arise in all three of the areas of society, economy and environment. Problems, which need interventions that touch upon various environmental elements, those that affect an extensive part of the society and the economy, and those that can only be solved with a high

degree of involvement of those concerned. In these specific areas, the Programme suggests thematic action programmes These thematic programmes are developed in compliance with the set environmental goals. The goals are set on mid-term time range and define the desired state of the environment. The Programme also describes a series of tools with which the goals can be achieved. These tools always take into account the opportunities for adapting to new conditions and challenges. 5.33 Waste management in the Programme As previously described, the Programme suggests Action Programmes for those areas of environmental protection that affect the whole society and whose solution needs a high degree of involvement of the population. Waste management definitely fits into this definition. 46 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum

szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. I will now present the waste management action programme of the NEPP – II. In the following chapter I will provide a more detailed discussion of the waste management methods used in Hungary. The overall goals of the programme are the following: ⇒ The development of prevention and recycling of waste from production and household waste ⇒ The management of these two types of waste in a way that guarantees a low risk for the environment ⇒ The improvement of planning and efficiency in waste management Hungarian environmental policy has undergone serious improvements in the past decades. The introduction of the National Environmental Protection Programmes has brought along a situation, were environmental objectives are clearly defined, the tools for

achieving the objectives are given and their achievement is monitored regularly. Environmental policy planning is becoming more and more complex. Policies now cover all sectors of the economy and the whole society. This, on the one hand, is a result of growing environmental awareness within the country and, on the other hand, is due to the international standards and rules that Hungary has to comply with. All in all, environmental policy is developing and improving, and although there is still a lot to do before reaching the state of more developed countries, there are various areas in which it is the developed countries, which should follow Hungary’s example (nature and bio-diversity, for example). 47 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon

felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 6 Hungary’s waste management policy Before the change of regime, in 1990, waste management was not regarded as an important issue in Hungary. Just as well as other environmental issues, it was subordinate to industrial growth. The socialist regime did not take account of environmental concerns This disregard left a country that had practically no organised waste management. In many areas, and still nowadays, people take their waste to illegal landfill sites. These are incidentally chosen by the population and do not fit any environmental standard whatsoever. These illegal landfill sites present the biggest problem for Hungarian waste management. They are not really controllable, as it is usually not known whose waste is put there. The decade of the 1990s did not bring any outstanding development in this field. This was due to the

lack of coherent legislation and of economic and technological standards. It was the Waste Management Act accepted in 2000 that brought along significant improvements. According to the accepted legislation, the National Waste Management Plan was worked out, which gives guidance in waste management at the national level. 48 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. In the following I will analyse the Hungarian waste and waste management situation at present. The analysis will include the basic principles, the issues of division of responsibility, waste economy, legislation and current waste

management practices concerning collection and treatment methods, with the corresponding data. I will also present a case study, a separate collection initiative introduced at Kistarcsa, a small town near Budapest. 6.1 Waste Management legislation When analysing Hungarian waste legislation it is very important to note, just like in the case of Sweden, that apart from national legislation, EU regulations also have to be taken into account. The difference in the case of the two countries is that while Sweden has in many fields gone beyond EU rules, Hungary has to work very hard to comply with the given standards. This is a very difficult task and it is getting more and more urgent to meet the European requirements, as the accession is now very close. The EU will not permit any accessing country to leave environmental issues out of consideration. It is also very important that it is by far not enough to introduce new legislation, it is just as important to make sure that its provisions

are complied with, and this, in Hungary, is sadly by far not ensured. The required establishment for this is not built up properly yet The national legal framework for waste management is given by the Act LIII. of 1995 and the Act XLIII. of 2000 The first one has been described in the previous chapter, the second one I will now present in more detail. 6.11 Act XLIII of 2000 on Waste Management26 The main aims of the legislation are the following: ¾ The protection of human health, of the natural and built environment, the assurance of sustainable development and the development of environmentally conscious behaviour among the population with the tools of waste management. 26 http://www.kvvmhu/korny/hulladekgazd/jogszabalyok/szakteruleti torvhtm 49 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az

elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. ¾ Being sparing with natural resources and the minimisation of the damage caused by waste. The prevention of waste generation, the recycling of generated waste in the major part possible and safe disposal in the case of non-recyclable waste. The Act clarifies the definitions of the terms used in waste management, in accordance with the definitions used and accepted in the EU. Concerning the basic principles of waste management, it was again the principles defined by the European Union that were introduced. Therefore, the most important ones are: the principle of prevention, of producer responsibility and the polluter pays principle among others. The Act clearly defines the rules to be followed in waste management. The basic rules and the obligations of all those who come into contact

with the potential or actual waste (i.e the producers, the distributors and the consumers) are defined. The rules concerning the treatment and reuse of waste are the following: ¾ Only those who have permits from the competent authorities can engage in waste treatment activities. ¾ All data concerning the collection and treatment of waste has to be made accessible to authorities. ¾ The technologies and apparatus used in the treatment of waste are subject to authorisation In the case of waste collection and transport, the following provisions apply: ¾ The assurance of the appropriate collection and treatment of waste is the obligation of the producer or proprietor of the waste. ¾ During the collection of the waste, the minder of waste collects the waste from its producers and transports it to the place were it will be disposed of, or recycled. ¾ The collection of waste is subject to a permit from environmental authorities, just as well as the establishment of waste treatment sites.

¾ Waste has to be transported in a way that does not damage the environment, and it is also subject to a permit from the environmental authorities. The regulations for the reuse and disposal of waste: ¾ Recycling sites are subject to a permit from authorities. 50 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. ¾ The recycler of the waste has to ensure that the product gained from recycling does not represent a greater threat to the environment that the original product. ¾ In the case of disposal, the establishments used for this purpose (e.g landfills), have to comply with all concerning environmental

regulations. The Act deals with the question of municipal waste in a separate section. Here, the responsibilities, and the economic implications (fees) are clearly specified. The issue of hazardous waste is also dealt with in a separate section. The Waste Management Act, as it can be seen, deals with all aspects of waste management in detail, however it is mostly a framework that has to be filled with other, complementary legislation. The EU regulations also have to be kept, by introducing them into national legislation. These regulations, are those presented in the “European Union’s Waste Management” chapter. For Hungary this is not an easy task, due to the arrears in environmental protection. Nonetheless, the process of catching up is going on, but as described in the previous chapter, there are certain areas where Hungary has asked for derogations during the accession negotiations, and these are mostly concerned with waste management. 6.2 The institutional background27 The

most important institution dealing with waste management is the Ministry of Environment and Water. The most important responsibilities of the Ministry are, the development and preparation of the legal, economical and technical regulatory systems; ensuring harmonisation with other sectors’ regulations; planning, supervision and management of the implementation of regulations and professional research and development. In addition to the Ministry, the 12 Regional Environmental Inspectorates carry out the tasks of waste management authorities. They are in charge of licensing, supervision and enforcement. The most important of the inspectorates is the Chief Inspectorate of Environmental and Nature Preservation. At the local level the notary publics of the municipalities are in charge in questions of municipal waste and building and site surveying issues. 27 National Waste management Plan: http://www.kvvmhu/korny/hulladekgazd/oht anghtm 51 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az

elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. This is the organisational structure, through which the data and information concerning waste management is collected and processed. 6.3 Division of Responsibility in Waste Management28 Hungarian legislation describes in detail the responsibilities of all those involved in waste management. This practically means all members of the society, as everybody, in some form or other, generates waste. The all-time owner of the waste has the obligation to minimise the environmental damage caused by the waste in his property. The proprietor of the waste is anyone who has generated it. Therefore, in the case

of household waste it is the citizen and in the case of waste from production it is the producer. The owner is responsible for collecting the waste appropriate for treatment, recovery or disposal, and handing it over to organisations with permits for this activity granted by the authorities. The producer of the waste has the obligation to minimise the quantities of waste generated, its hazardousness, and is obliged to ensure the safe collection and disposal of the generated waste. The producer can transfer the task of disposal to specialised entrepreneurs, but in the case of collection this is not possible. The local authorities’ duty is to provide a public service in handling waste. This means that they are obliged by law to organise the collection and handling of household waste generated in the municipality. According to the legislation, local authorities have to cooperate in waste management in order to achieve better results This, in Sweden is also an established custom, but

there not by law, but because the local authorities themselves have recognised the need for it. The local authorities have to set the amount of the waste management fees in their town. Producer responsibility states, that the producer is responsible for choosing the characteristics of the product and the technologies used in the production process in a way that they comply with environmental regulations. This encompasses the used materials and also the reusability of the waste generated by the product after use, just as well as contributing to the planning and the costs of disposal. 28 www.kvvmhu/korny/hulladekgazd 52 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de

csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. The producer is obliged to take back the prescribed amount of certain products or product groups from the consumer or the distributor for recycling or reuse. The list of these products can be found in a separate piece of legislation. The responsibility of consumers is the collection of waste generated in their household, and they are obliged to hand it over to the collector of the waste, may that be the local authorities or any other contractor. The consumers (or households) also have the obligation of paying the fee for the provided service. 6.4 Waste economy in Hungary29 The rules concerning waste management charges are set in the Government Regulation 242/2000. The regulation came into force on the 1st of January 2001 When financing waste management, the polluter pays principle must be applied. This is why the waste collection charges collected from the population should cover the municipal waste management costs. In

the past years, these charges have increased drastically in Hungary. The average annual cost per household has mounted to 8,900 HUF (~ €36) This, in terms of the average incomes is extremely high. It means that an average income family pays 0.8% of its income for waste management charges The reason for the drastic increase in the past decade was, on the one hand, the need for compliance with the waste charge calculation regulations in effect in 2001, and on the other hand, the establishment of more modern and expensive facilities needed financing. The most important provisions of the Government Regulation on waste charges, in force now and since the 1st of January 2001 are the following.30 The aim of the Regulation is to help develop a more efficient waste management at the municipal level by regulating in detail the public service fee of waste management. The local authorities decide on the waste management fee to be applied concerning municipal waste. The waste management fees have

to be set so that they cover the cost of the services provided, like collection and transport, just as well as the costs of subsequent management like disposal and monitoring. 29 30 National Waste management Plan: http://www.kvvmhu/korny/hulladekgazd/oht anghtm http://www.kvvmhu/korny/hulladekgazd/jogszabalyok/dijkormhtm 53 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. The charge systems applied have to be corresponding to the service provided, and this will result in charge systems projected on the number of emptying, although the Regulation allows for fee calculations based on volume or weight as

well. The product charges (or green tax) are the other very important economic regulators in connection with waste management. The regulation concerning product charges was last modified in 2002. Before the amendment of the Regulation on Product Charges, the charges were obligatory in five product categories: tires, refrigerators, packaging, fuels and accumulators. According to the amendment introduced in 2003, the amount to be paid in charges has risen and the range of products to which the charge is applicable has also been widened, papers used for advertisements and dissolvents are now also included. It is now the Government’s duty to decide upon the exemptions from product charges. Those organisations, which are obliged to pay product charges, but collect the waste generated from their products and recycle them, can be exempted from paying the charges. The aim of the legislation is to ensure that the cost of waste treatment is shared by everybody, and to follow the “polluter

pays” principle. The income from the charges will in the future cover the costs of the treatment of waste. This amendment has been a great step towards the harmonisation with EU standards, and it has contributed to a great extent to the development of a cleaner Hungary, as it backs a waste management based on the diminution of the amount and the reuse of waste. 6.5 Waste management in Hungary and the National Waste Management Plan31 The National Waste Management Plan 2003-2008 was adopted by the Hungarian Parliament in 2002. The Plan has been developed taking into account the current waste management situation. The Plan is based on the waste management principles laid down in the Act LXIII. of 2000 on waste management (the WM Act) In the following I will present the waste management situation in Hungary as in the year 2000 (the latest year available), and the programs developed in the Waste Management Plan as a response to the different existing problems. 31 Source: National Waste

management Plan: http://www.kvvmhu/korny/hulladekgazd/oht anghtm 54 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. The goals of the plan have been developed for the period of 2003-2008, in accordance with the waste management goals pursued in the EU, and in accordance with the basic principles laid down in the WM Act. If achieved, the goals will hopefully ensure the functioning of modern waste management in Hungary. First of all, the Plan emphasises the importance of laying down the requirements and regulations. These apply to the waste management control systems, to the plans developed at the local level

and in the greater statistical regions, to the system of EU-conform technical requirements and the integration of sectoral measures into other policies. The second important goal of the Plan is to develop the institutional background. This means the set up of appropriate institutions that will be able to develop, implement and control the waste management plans developed at the local, regional and the national level. It also includes ensuring the functioning of organisations that co-ordinate the recovery of waste, according to the “producer’s responsibility” principle. The scheme of economic incentives and grants for waste management should also be further developed. Raising public awareness and providing information through the electronic, written and other media, both for the public and for businesses is an important goal that also needs action at the local and the national level, and here the civil organisations can also have a central role. Enhancing research and development

is also a very important goal. Through it, the level of waste management can be raised. Waste management has to be developed in accordance with the EU’s 6th Environmental Action Programme. This means the ensuring of sustainable development by the reasonable use of natural resources, and preventive measures that ensure the decrease of volumes in waste management. 6.51 Amounts of waste and waste management in 200032 In the year 2000, some 70 million tons of waste were generated in Hungary. From this, about 65 million tons were industrial and agricultural waste and the remaining 5 million were municipal waste. 32 The latest year available 55 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való

megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. In the case of industrial waste, about 90% is slag, coming from coal fired power plants, mining and industrial waste treatment sludge. The remaining amount includes waste from trade and services. The waste coming from businesses that form part of waste treated by public services such as municipal waste management, are accounted for as municipal waste. In the case of agricultural waste, the situation is more complicated. The National Waste Management Plan states that some 85% of agricultural and food-industrial waste, like plant residues and manure from livestock, is almost 100 percent recovered. On the other hand, other relevant literature states that the recovery of this type of waste, apart from some exceptions, is not yet solved. This difference in the available data is a good example of the bad state of the waste information systems in the country. Municipal waste includes approximately

4,6 million tons of solid municipal waste. About two thirds of this comes from household waste, while the remaining one third is waste originating from businesses, but treated by municipal waste management, as it is similar to household waste. The amount of hazardous waste is approximately 3.4 million tons Most of it comes from industry and incineration plants. Only about 1% of municipal waste is hazardous Graph no. 4: Change in Waste Quantities 1990-2000 (million tons) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Agricultural non hazardous Industrial nonhazardous Municipal solid Municipal liquid Hazardous Biomass TOTAL 1990 1995 2000 Source: Hungarian National Waste Management Plan 56 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások

nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. The above diagram gives a picture of a decreasing total amount of waste. This, however, is not absolutely correct. The amount of non-hazardous industrial and agricultural waste has been decreasing in the past decade, but the quantity of municipal waste is actually growing again, and hazardous waste at the same level than five years ago. What does this show? In the first place it proves the fact that the economic regression in the beginning of the 1990s did have a positive effect, at least on the amounts of waste. After the economy began to recover, the amounts of municipal solid waste began to rise again, as people began to “enjoy” the consumer society. On the other hand, industry and agriculture began to have access to better technology, and the sewage systems were developed in more and more municipalities. This is why the industrial, agricultural and municipal

liquid waste continued to decrease. These trends in waste generation result in waste quantity patterns that are getting more and more similar to the patterns that have developed in western countries. Like Sweden, for example The minimum requirement, therefore, would be to develop similar patterns in the treatment of waste as well, but most important would be, in accordance with the principle of waste hierarchy, to concentrate on waste prevention. The National Waste Management Plan gives specific target numbers to be reached by 2008 concerning waste quantities. The following table shows these target numbers in million tons: Table no. 6: Waste type 2000 2005 2008 Agricultural non-hazardous 5 5 3 Industrial non-hazardous 21,5 20 18 Municipal solid 4,6 4,8 5,2 Municipal liquid 5,5 5,2 4,6 Hazardous 3,4 4 4,1 Biomass 28 30 32 TOTAL 68,7 70,1 68,4 Source: National Waste Management Plan 57 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes

szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. The quantities of industrial waste are expected to continue to fall, due to the spreading of modern technologies (although this leads to a growing amount of hazardous waste), and the development of new waste prevention programmes. Municipal solid waste, however, is still expected to increase. The Plan states that this increase will be of only a small amount due to the expected reduction of packaging materials and light fractions. This is not enough. To increase only by a small amount is still an increase and the goal is to prevent waste and to get to the point where waste starts to decrease. Municipal liquid waste is expected to

continue to decrease, which is good. If the target numbers are really reached, then the total quantity of waste will decrease as well. This would be very good, but it is very important to emphasise that it is not enough to reach lower volumes in only certain types of waste, it should be so in all. 6.52 Waste treatment in Hungary The amounts of waste generated are the most important numbers in waste management questions (and in the EU’s waste hierarchy, i.e waste prevention), but the effective treatment of waste is quite as important, as it can greatly reduce the negative environmental effects of waste. As previously mentioned, the waste pattern in Hungary is looking more and more like the pattern in more developed countries. Apart from the fact that this is not a good trend, the other thing that makes this situation worse for Hungary is that the waste treatment methods are by far less developed and environmentally friendly here. 33 Waste management principles in Hungary are

developed in accordance with EU principles. The principle of waste hierarchy is therefore also being implemented The situation in the process of implementation is the following: waste prevention is not in a very good state. Although industrial waste is decreasing, this is due to the more developed technologies and the accompanying product developments. This, however, is by far not enough. Municipal solid waste has begun to increase in the past years again and it is still growing. The big problem is that a very low proportion of the generated waste is recovered. This means less than 30% of non-hazardous industrial waste, and less than 33 All data from: National Waste management Plan: http://www.kvvmhu/korny/hulladekgazd/oht anghtm 58 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus

könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 20% in the case of hazardous waste. The situation with municipal solid waste is even worse, only 3% of it is recovered. Disposal is still the most widely used treatment for the waste generated, and within this the practice of landfill. The percentages of waste going to landfill are more than worrying. In the case of municipal solid waste, for example, it is more than 82%. This shows that although there is a will to implement the principle of waste hierarchy, it is obvious that it is not yet fully working. In the following I will present the different waste treatment methods used in Hungary, with the respective percentages of waste types treated this way and the targets defined in the National Waste Management Plan in order to improve both the methods and the percentages. a.) Waste Recovery Graph no.

5: Percentage Recovered from the Different Types of Waste(2000) 100 80 60 40 20 0 Agricultural nonhazardous Industrial nonhazardous Municipal solid Municipal liquid Hazardous Biomass TOTAL Source: National Waste Management plan In accordance with EU regulations, by the end of the period 2003-2008, approximately half of all waste (not including biomass!) must be recovered or used in power production. A system that is conform with EU standards must be developed for waste recovery and reuse. Within the waste management plan, programs have been developed for all types of waste to reach the desired amount of recovery by the end of the period. For non-hazardous 59 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a

forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. industrial waste, the target is to reach the EU level of recovery percentage, which is about 50%. For this, surveys should be carried out to determine the capacity for recycling waste, and regulations and standards must be introduced in order to ensure that only that waste is dumped, for which there is no other choice. The basis for ensuring industrial waste recovery should be the manufacturer’s responsibility for selective waste collection and taking back of gathered reusable waste. Reusing of non-hazardous agricultural waste is promoted by the National Agro-Environmental Program. This supports environmentally friendly farming methods. Apart from this, the Plan emphasises the need for the increased agricultural use of organic waste from other sources (e.g food-industry) In the case of municipal solid waste, only 3% has been recovered in the year 2000. This is an extremely

low number. The WM Act requires that by the year 2008, 60 percent of the population should have access to selective collection facilities. Different programs have been developed for complex waste gathering systems and for the introduction of separate collection systems. The overall aim with municipal solid waste is to reach the EU standards, that is a recovery rate of 50% for packaging waste by 2005 and a decrease of 50% in deposited organic household waste by 2007 compared to 1995. For hazardous waste the main aims are the avoidance and the reduction in the degree of hazardous character, but a 30% recovery rate by 2008 is also set. The recovery rate of hazardous waste today is of 20%. b.) Landfill of waste Graph no. 6: Percentage of Types of Waste going to Landfill (2000) 100 80 60 40 20 0 Industrial Agricultural Municipal nonnonsolid hazardous hazardous Municipal Hazardous liquid Biomass TOTAL 60 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű

dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. Source: National Waste Management Plan In the area of waste disposal, the Plan states, that it must be ensured that only waste that can not be disposed of otherwise is dumped and all the inadequate landfills and waste dumps must be closed or reconstructed in order to meet the requirements, by 2009 the latest. In order to achieve this, all landfills operating in the country must be examined, and a schedule has to be set up that will lead to the closing down of all sub-standard landfills. Concerning quantities, the Plan sets a target of reducing the amount of both hazardous and non-hazardous dumped waste by 20% each. In the case of

biodegradable animal and plant waste, the Plan prescribes total elimination of dumping. This is in accordance with EU ambitions A safe treatment method for this type of waste is composting. The most shocking percentage of waste going to landfill is in the case of municipal solid waste. 83% is well above EU average and it is absolutely unsustainable If the numbers do not decrease, very serious environmental problems will arise. Even more worrying is the fact that this number concerns only the collected municipal waste. Many people, however, do not meet their obligation of collecting their waste and handing it over to the organisation providing the public service of collection. They take their waste themselves to illegal landfills. These can be anywhere, in forests, by the road The reason for this behaviour is the wish to avoid having to pay the waste management fee. Today, in Hungary these illegal landfills cause the biggest problem in waste issues. Only 15 percent of the public

landfills are considered modern. The current practice of waste dumping has to be changed. The Plan specifies the need for all operating landfills to meet EU and Hungarian ministerial regulations by the end of the period. Those landfills not meeting the requirement must be shut down. The Plan underlines the need for continuing the program for municipal waste management and re-cultivation of abandoned landfills, which is part of the National Environmental Protection Programme. Establishment of regional landfills and the ensuring of the functioning of existing ones is also emphasised. The introduction of separate collection systems should help decrease the amount of waste going to landfill, as they facilitate recovery. 61 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai

szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. The amount of hazardous waste is expected to rise by 3-4% annually due to the spreading of engineering and micro-electronics industry. The disposal of hazardous waste that can not be recovered must be given special emphasis. The Plan prescribes the development of a comprehensive, nation-wide hazardous waste disposal network that is available for all manufacturers. This will include expanding and modernising landfill capacities, which will ensure environmentally safe disposal. In 2001 a Ministerial Regulation was adopted on the rules concerning landfill and the recultivation of abandoned landfills. c.) Incineration of waste and other types of disposal Graph no. 7: Percentage of Waste Types Going to Incineration or other Disposal (2000) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Agricultural nonhazardous Industrial nonhazardous Municipal solid

Municipal liquid Hazardous Biomass TOTAL Source: National Waste Management Plan Waste incineration is the most favoured disposal method within the EU. According to the waste hierarchy, this is the method to be followed when recovery is not possible. It can be seen in the diagram that in contrary to the highly opposed landfill, here the numbers are quite low. The reason for this is that there is only one incinerator in the country for municipal waste, in Budapest. It was built in 1981, and by now it is extremely out of date Apart from this one there are only smaller incinerators in the country. In the longer term, the Plan sets the target of a maximum of six waste incinerators (one per territorial planning region), each serving at least 300 thousand inhabitants. This would 62 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum

szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. certainly lead to the decrease in the dumping of waste. Complex gathering systems for each incinerator should be developed, like in the case of landfills. In the case of hazardous waste modernisation and expansion of incinerator capacities is considered indispensable. Since the introduction of the waste management plan34 a Ministerial Regulation on the incineration of waste has been introduced that regulates the giving out of permits and the specific rules for waste incineration. 6.53 Special Material and Waste Flow Programme It is very important to mention the part of the National Waste Management Plan that deals with the special materials and waste flows. These are waste flows that refer to wasterelated business activities, and also waste from

product charge based products They are mainly hazardous waste types. Within this issue I would like to highlight the programme dealing with packaging and packaging waste. According to the WM Act, the ratio to be reached in recovery of this type of waste is a minimum of 50% by 2005. At the moment, this number is about 30-35% In some types of packaging, like paper and metallic packaging Hungary already surpasses the set minimum of 15% recovery, but in the case of plastic the rate of recovery is only about 7-8%. The waste management plan highlights that with the current product charge practice, the goal of 50% recovery can not be reached. Serious structural and organisational changes are needed to attain the desired number. In order to achieve the 50% recovery, at least 4 million people will have to take part in separate collection by 2005 and 6 million by 2008. The organisation of this will need the help of co-ordinating organisations relying on producer responsibility. In 2002, a

Government Regulation concerning the rules of handling packaging waste came into force. This includes provisions concerning the producing and marking of packaging, what materials can be used for the production, about the handling of packaging and packaging waste and also about setting up an information system on packaging and packaging waste. 34 http://www.kvvmhu/korny/hulladekgazd/jogszabalyok/egetesminhtm 63 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. 6.6 Selective waste collection at Kistarcsa: a good example to be followed in the whole country From the previous discussion of the waste management

situation in Hungary it seems that the state of waste management in the country is extremely underdeveloped and out-of-date. This is true in most parts of the country, but the discussion would not be complete without saying a few words about the very positive initiations taken by various civil organisations. These initiatives can serve as an example for the whole country, and it is not only the ideas, but also the emerging problems and difficulties that can give guidance for decisionmakers. Selective waste collection at Kistarcsa was initiated by the Rügyecskék Fund in April 2002. With the help of German volunteers, the Fund opened the first wasteyard at Kistarcsa. The wasteyard was placed between two houses in a housing development For the residents this means that they have to walk a bit more to take their waste to the containers. Before the opening, the volunteers of the Fund gave information to the population about the initiative. This was done, on the one hand, during the

meetings held at the multi-family houses, and on the other hand, in the schools, for children, during class. The “teaching” of the population began about a year before the waste yard was actually opened. More than a thousand people are now involved in the selective collection system. This means about three hundred households, a school and a kindergarden. Selective collection is not at all obligatory, it is up to the population if they want to take part in it or not. At present, about 50 percent of the households that could be involved are actually selecting their waste. There are various reasons for this: ⇒ Elderly people find it difficult to carry their waste to the wasteyard. It is much easier to put it in the containers in the houses. In order to help them, the volunteers of the Fund provide a service of collecting the selected waste from the households and taking it to the wasteyard. ⇒ Some people find it difficult to select the waste, as it is not always clear, to which

category a certain piece of waste belongs. In order to help them, if asked for, the 64 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. volunteers of the Fund visit the family and help them select their waste. There are also brochures given by the Fund that help in selecting. ⇒ Some people just don’t care. Of course, this is the most difficult problem to be solved. As selective waste collection is not compulsory, if someone does not want to do it, then they will not, and can not be obliges to do so. ⇒ It is not a problem, but it also have to be mentioned that even those people who do collect their

waste separately do not all do so on the same level. Some people only collect paper, or the glass and plastic materials separately. ⇒ A very big problem is the passive attitude of the population. There are no initiatives from them, only from the Fund. If a good idea emerges they do take part, but they do not try to initiate themselves. Although the problems exist, and the wasteyard was only opened a year and a half ago, there are already some very positive results. Five of the houses taking part in the program need one waste container less each for collecting their mixed waste. For each container this means a saving of HUF100 thousand (~ € 400) per year. This is a lot of money, even if it is a multi-family house of between eight or ten households. In addition, the selected waste is sold to recycling organisations. In the case of glass, metal and paper, it is the RWE Umwelt company who buys the selected waste for further selling, and in the case of plastic it is the plastic

processor at Csömör. From this income, the Fund has been able to buy benches made from recycled plastic for the neighbourhood, just as well as further bins, suitable for selective collection, that have been set up on the street. This system is very good because the population has direct benefits from selective collection and therefore will be more motivated to continue the process. The following table shows the specific numbers concerning the recovered waste and the amount of money obtained from it: Table no. 7: Type of waste Quantity recovered (kg) Money obtained from it Newspaper 4,838 HUF 37,971 Cardboard 3,241 HUF 34,408 White glass 4,273 HUF 10,683 Metal 199 HUF 20,200 65 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók

változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. Cooking oil 210 (litres) - Mixed paper 5, 936 HUF 35,578 Coloured glass 2,088 HUF 4,053 Iron 549 HUF 5,094 Plastic 29,990 HUF 194,825 Hazardous waste 600 - TOTAL 51,114 HUF 342,812 Source: Annual Report on the Activities of the Rügyecskék Fund at Kistarcsa The initiative at Kistarcsa is not an isolated example. There are several similar initiatives all around the country (in Budaörs, for example) that could well serve as an example for the whole country. The problems emerging there, will probably drop up when introducing countrywide separate collection as well. From this example it should be clear for decisionmakers that the “education” of people concerning separate collection must start (and should have started!) long before the introduction of the actual collection system. It should also be clear that it is much easier

for people to take their separated waste to wasteyards near their homes. The best solution would probably be to set up wasteyards for each block in the case of multi-family houses and introduce the use of separate containers in the case of single-family houses. It is also evident that many people will not separate their waste unless they are forced to do so by law, or if they see obvious financial benefit from it. This means that concerning legislation has to be introduced and that waste fees must be modified in order to make separate collection economically worth. 66 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű

alkalmazásokhoz. 7 Overall Comparison and Conclusion When comparing the waste management policy of the two countries, the first thing that becomes obvious is that the main difference is not in the quantities of waste or the trends in waste generation, it is in the management and treatment of waste and in the division of responsibilities. Sweden is by far more developed in managing waste than Hungary. The EU is more developed in waste management than the accessing countries. There are various reasons for this. First of all, Hungary has started to develop in this field about half a century later than Sweden. The reigning regime in the second half of the 20th century was not concerned at all about environmental protection. By the time Hungarian decision-makers started to realise the importance of the issue, Sweden was already well ahead of even the other EU Member States in environmental protection. The second reason for the difference in 67 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az

elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. development lies in the attitude of the society. Swedish society has got used to “thinking green” throughout the years. Hungary is still in the state of learning about the topic The population is in a situation where they are often hearing for the first time about the environmental implications of their actions. They are starting to realise now that many of their activities are extremely harmful, but at the same time they can do a lot, by only changing a little. A third reason for the differences is the huge difference of living standards. It is true that when solving everyday problems takes up

the time of the people, they are not as ready to take care of their environment. In Sweden, and other EU Member States, this type of problem is not so common and people have both the time and the energy to be environmentally conscious. This third reason can, to some extent, be applied not only to the individuals, but the State as well. Decision-makers are so busy trying to keep the economy going that they forget about the environment. In their case, however, there should be no excuse, as they should be fully aware of their responsibility in this field. A fourth reason is the relatively lower state of development of the civil organisations in Hungary, and other accessing countries. They are the ones who could really help both the Government and the population realise the importance of environmental awareness. These organisations, however good their intentions are, do not get enough money, backing and acting space to fully fulfil their duty. Despite all the difficulties and arrears,

Hungary is on the right track for catching up, both in the field of legislation and in environmental consciousness. 7.1 Comparison of waste management legislation in the two countries Concerning legislation there is one point where the two countries inevitably meet. This is the implementation of the regulations of the European Union. The difference is, that while Sweden is in many areas (like questions of hazardous waste and landfill) well ahead of EU regulations, at the same time Hungary is still struggling to meet the requirements. There are also differences in the national legislation. At present, Hungarian waste legislation is mainly made up of the National Waste Management Plan (with its shortcomings), based on the Waste Management Act, and the plan is backed with complementary legislation. However, in most of the cases there is only a plan, which exists, but there is nothing to ensure its implementation. The target numbers are written down, and even if there is a regulation

entitled to ensure the achievement of these numbers, there is no reliable 68 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. institutional background to ensure the implementation of the regulation itself. There are too many “back-stairs” in the legislation that can be and are found and used by the actors of the economy. In a legally more consistent environment, like Sweden, this type of attitude does not exist. 7.2 Differences in division of responsibility in waste management The biggest difference in the division of responsibility lies in producer responsibility. In Sweden it is one of the strictest

regulations in Europe, while in Hungary there is still a lot to work on. Sweden is outstanding in the obligation of producers of certain products and for all packaging material to take back and treat the waste generated by their activities. This means that they have to take care of the reuse or recycle of their products. In Hungary this responsibility only applies to a certain proportion of the manufactured products, and the circle of products under producer responsibility is also smaller. 7.3 Waste economy compared In the case of waste economy it can be said that the advantage of the Swedish model is that it is much more “fair” and clear. In Sweden the waste management fee is calculated from two numbers: there is a fix and a variable part. The fix part has to be paid by everybody, while the variable depends on the consumer. This part can be influenced by the amount of waste generated. The environmental levies on products are charged by the producers to cover their costs of

handling waste. They are included in the price, therefore can influence the buying decision of the consumer by having a serious effect on price and do not have to be paid again through the waste management fee. In Hungary the waste management fee is set by the local authorities. It is not always clear what the basis for the calculation is, and this lack of transparency can lead to unfair prices. The fee to be paid by Hungarian households, on average, is very high. In proportion of the average income it is nearly one percent of the annual income, which is very high compared to Swedish proportions. The system of product charges would be good if it was more strictly implemented. It is clear that the concept of making those organisations pay the product charges, which contaminate the environment with their products and through production is good. However, here again, there is the problem of not implementing the 69 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes

szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. legislation strictly enough. The Government is in charge of deciding on exemptions from under the obligation of paying the product charges, possible in the case when the company organises the collection and reuse of the waste material from their products. Here, it is clear that the emphasis is not on prevention, but on treatment of waste, and this is not in accordance with the EU regulations. Another very big problem with waste economy in Hungary is the problem of consumers paying twice: once they pay for a packaging material when they buy the product and they pay again when the waste is taken away, through the waste management

fee. This is due to the lack of returnable packaging systems. These systems did exist in the past decades, but by now they have nearly completely disappeared. It would be very important to reintroduce these systems because they are a very good form of waste prevention (waste hierarchy!), and they save money for the consumers. 7.4 Differences in waste treatment methods The most significant differences in waste management between the two countries are in the waste treatment methods, as waste volumes and waste generation trends are largely similar. While industrial and agricultural waste is decreasing, hazardous and municipal waste is still on the rise. These trends call for very good waste management and appropriate treatment methods. In Sweden, waste treatment methods are mostly conform with EU standards. Waste recovery is widely used. The recovery is feasible thanks to the strict producer responsibility and the active contribution of the population. In 2002, for most household waste

types, the rate of recycling was near or above the 50 percent recycling rate targeted by the EU. In the case of industrial and agricultural waste the numbers are obviously even better. In Hungary the recycling rate for household waste is very poor Three percent, which is nearly nothing. This very low number is in great part due to, apart from some isolated initiatives, the lack of separate collection of household waste. In the case of landfill the same situation applies. Sweden has managed to lower the amount of waste going to landfill through tough legislation and landfill taxes. The total amount of waste going to landfill has decreased by 6 percent compared to last year and it is continuing to decrease. In Hungary there is no tendency of decreasing quantities of waste 70 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum

szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. going to landfill. The percentages are very high In the case of municipal waste it is over 83%, and this is only the percentage of legally collected waste, it does not take into account illegal waste dumping. Such high numbers are absolutely against EU regulations and have to be lowered in the very near future, or at least the landfill sites need to be updated. Incineration is preferred all over the EU over landfill. In Sweden it is the most widely used method for treating waste. Nearly 40 percent of household waste is treated this way The incinerators are very modern, and only contribute marginally to environmental pollution. On the other hand, in many towns, they provide the energy for heating throughout winter. The incinerators, as used in Sweden,

can serve as a source of energy and help reduce the volume of waste going to landfill. In Hungary there is only one incinerator for municipal waste, and it is extremely pollutant and out of date. It is not surprising, therefore, that a very low percentage of waste is actually disposed of this way, it just reaches or is just over 10 percent in the case of different types of waste. Extremely low For Hungary it is vital to meet EU regulations in the field of waste management. Not only because of the provisions of the Accession Treaty, but also for its own sake. Continuing the current practice will soon lead to an unsustainable situation. It is clear that the process of changing will not happen from one day to another, and that reaching the results achieved in Sweden and other more developed EU countries is still very far away, but with consistent work and the participation of everybody, it can be done. The route on which Hungary is going, heads towards the right direction, we only have

to make sure that the right path is followed until the goals are reached. The differences between most of the EU Member States and the accessing countries in terms of waste management are big, but diminishing, as the accessing countries are falling into line with the European Union. List of Tables and Graphs Tables: • Table no. 1: Recycling target numbers for packaging waste and the actual percentages in Sweden, p. 34 71 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. • Table no. 2: The quantities of waste from some of the most important waste streams deposited in landfills in Sweden, p.35 •

Table no.3: Total quantities deposited at landfill sites in the past five years in Sweden, p. 35 • Table no. 4: The composition of the total amount of waste treated biologically in Sweden, p.36 • Table no. 5: The amount of waste incinerated in the past five years (in tons) and the energy production from the incinerated waste in each of the same years in Sweden, p.37 • Table no. 6: The waste target numbers in million tons in Hungary for the next five years, p. 54 • Table no. 7: The specific numbers concerning the recovered waste and the amount of money obtained from it at Kistarcsa, p. 62 Graphs: • Graph no. 1: Major waste streams in the EU, p 14 • Graph no. 2: Distribution of treatment methods for household waste 2002, p 32 • Graph no. 3: Percentage of types of waste recycled, p 33 • Graph no. 4: Change in waste quantities 1990-2000 (million tons), p53 • Graph no. 5: Percentage recovered from the different types of waste (2000), p 56 • Graph no.

6: Percentage of types of waste going to landfill (2000), p 57 • Graph no. 7: Percentage of waste types going to incineration or other disposal (2000), p.59 Bibliography Books: 72 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. - László Vermes, Hulladékgazdálkodás, hulladékhasznosítás (Waste Management, Waste Reuse), 2nd Edition, 1998, Mezőgazda Kiadó, Budapest - Hulladékgazdálkodás az Európai Unióban és Magyaroroszágon (Waste Management in the European Union and Hungary), 2002, Kereskedelmi és Iparkamara, Budapest - EU-csatlakozás 2004 (EU-accession 2004), Magyar

Köztársaság Külügyminisztériuma (Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs), 2003, Budapest Internet Addresses: - www.kvvmhu - www.europaeuint - www.europaeuint/comm/environment/index enhtm - www.kumhu - www.maesholnaphu - www.humuszhu - www.eurohu - www.rvfse - www.rietorg - www.forumforthefutureorguk - www.kvvmhu/korny/hulladekgazd - www.eeaeuint - www.miljoregeringense - www.regeringense - www.nethu - www.oecdorg - www.euroguideorg - www.mtvszhu - www.hulladeklaphu - www.rugyecskekhu 73 BGF KKFK Elektronikus Könyvtár Az elektronikus könyvtár teljes szövegű dokumentumokat tartalmaz biztosítva a szabad információ-hozzáférést. A szerzői és egyéb jogok a dokumentum szerzőjét/tulajdonosát illeti. Az elektronikus könyvtár dokumentumai szabadon felhasználhatók változtatások nélkül a forrásra való megfelelő hivatkozással, de csak saját célra nem kereskedelmi jellegű alkalmazásokhoz. Articles: - Dr. Miklós

Persányi, Pénzt vagy életet?! (Money or life?!), Népszabadság, Volume LXI number 236, 9th of October 2003, p.16 - Kata Pál, Palackba zárt üzenet (Message in the bottle), Magyar Narancs, Volume XV number 45, 6th of October 2003, pp. 18-21 Dissertations: - Krisztina Vámosi, “Szemétdomb az újkor hajnalán”, avagy hulladékgazdálkodás az Európai Uniós csatlakozás tükrében, különös tekintettel a társadalom környezettudatos szemléletmódjának kialakítására (“Dusthill at the dawn of a new era”, waste management in the light of European Union accession, with special regard to the environmental education of the population), BGF-KKFK, 2002 - Orsolya Judit Horváth, Az EU környezetvédelmi politikája és Magyarország környezetvédelem terén tett lépései Unióscsatlakozása érdekében, a Bruntland Bizottságtól Johannesburgig, illetve a csatlakozási tárgyalások megkezdésétől napjainkig (The EU’s environmental policy, and Hungary’s steps

in this field aiming at the EU –accession, from the Bruntland Committee until Johannesburg, and from the start of the accession negotiations auntil present day), BGF-KKFK, 2002 74